612 Assyrian capitol of Ninevah was sacked by the Medes and Babylonians; Assyrian empire collapsed, leaving four powers: Lydia (bordering coastal Greek cities on Asia Minor), Medes, Neo-Babylonians, Egypt

600 Lydians seek to subjugate Greek cities on Asia Minor, succeed by mid-6th c.
(relatively benign rule)

559 Cyrus emerges as king of the Persians

550 Cyrus conquers the Medes

544 Lydia (under Croessus) defeated by Persians; Greek cities seek to avoid Persian control

540 Most Greek cities on Asia Minor under Persian control (Miletus comes to terms with Persia in 539)

539 Persia conquers Babylon

530 Chambyses succeeds Cyrus as Persian king, conquers Egypt

522 Cyrus dies, succession struggles, but Darius eventually emerges as king

514 Greek islands of Chios, Samos, and Lesbos added to Persian Empire

499 Aristagoras, of Miletus, unsuccessfully attacks Naxos (in the Cyclades) with Persian troops; Aristagoras, fearing reprisals by Persia, organizes a revolt of Ionian cities

498 Ionians and allies (including Athens) capture part of Sardis, are unable to capture the citadel; allies withdraw to Ephesus and are defeated by Persians; Athenians withdraw; conflict continues

494 Final defeat of Ionian cities: Miletus falls

493 Persians recover Chios, Lesbos, Tenedos, and the European areas of the Hellespont

492 Mardonius (Persian general) re-establishes Persian control in Thrace and Macedonia

490 Hippias (former Athenian tyrant) guides Persian expedition to Marathon; Athenians and Plataeans defeat Persian army; remnants sail to Athens, but Athenian army arrives first; Persians withdraw

486 Darius dies; Xerxes succeeds; re-conquers Egypt (after rebellion)

483 Themistocles persuades Athenians to use new silver vein for warships

481 Athens joins Hellenic League to resist coming Persian invasion (Sparta leading city)

480 Xerxes leads forces across Hellespont; invades mainland Greece Athenian fortifications at Piraeus completed Leonidas and Spartan army succumb to Persians at Thermopylae; naval battle off Thermopylae indecisive--Greek naval forces withdraw on learning of Spartan defeat Persians march on Athens; acropolis falls Themistocles convinces Greek naval commanders to fight at Salamis; Greek navy defeats Persian navy; Persian navy withdraws to Asia Minor; Persian army (under Mardonius) withdraws to Thessaly and Macedonia

479 Greek army engages Persian army at Plataea; Mardonius killed; Persians defeated; Persians withdraw to Asia Minor Greek naval forces destroy Persian navy at Mycale (on coast of Asia Minor)

478 Athenians take command of naval forces in Aegean; Spartans and their allies sail home; formation of Athens's Delian League